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Health criteria for size-selective aerosol sampling in the working environment
Edward Więcek
This paper presents some problems associated with aerosol sampling in the working environment in the context of evaluating health risk and compliance with MAC (Maximum Admissible Concen-trations). For silicosis and other pneumoconiosis-producing dusts, the fraction deposited in gas-exchange region of the lung is the most interesting one. This paper discusses standards and criteria for respirable dust of BMRC (British Medical Research Council), the Johannesburg International Conference on Pneumoconiosis, AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) and ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). For particles that are deposited in the head and tracheobronchial regions, definitions of size fractions of the ISO Technical Committee146, ACGIH ASP (Air Sampling Procedures) Committee and U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) are discussed. Modified by Soderholm particle size-selective sampling criteria for inhalable particulate mass, thoratic particulate mass and respirable particulate mass fractions are recommended for establishing MAC in Poland.
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But-2-yne-1,4-diol. Documentation
Małgorzata Kupczewska-Dobecka
But-2-yne-1,4-diol is a yellow solid at room temperature and normal pressure. But-2-yne-1,4-diol is produced at two sites in Europe (production volume ranges amounts to 200,000 tonnes/annum). But-2-yne-1,4-diol is used in butanediol and butenediol synthesis as an external intermediate for the production of flame retardants; as a corrosion inhibitor and pickling agent in metal surface treatment; as an intermediate for the synthesis of polyols, insecticides, pharmaceuticals and auxiliaries for the paint and textile industry; and as a component of cleansing agents for sanitary installations, car cleansing products, building facade cleansers and disinfectants for sanitary installations.
Assessment of the available data on acute toxic effects indicates that in the rat but-2-yne-1,4-diol is toxic by inhalation (LC50 of 0.69 mg/l/4 h) and by oral ingestion, and harmful following dermal absorption (LD50 values oral: 132-176 mg/kg bw, and dermal: 659-1.240 mg/kg bw). Critical organs in animals in inhalation exposure are respiratory tract, liver and kidney. Human data on acute toxicity are not available. Butynediol has demonstrated corrosivity to skin, eyes and the respiratory tract of rabbits. Human data on local irrtancy/corrosivity are not available. In human, two cases of contact allergy have been described. Animal data demonstrate that the substance shows a weak sensitization potential.
In setting exposure limits, the results of a subchronic inhalation exposure in rats were considered. On the basis of the NOAEC value for local exposure 0.5 mg/m³ and the relevant uncertainty factors, a MAC (TWA) value of 0.25 mg/m³ and MAC (STEL) of 0.5 mg/m³ respectively were suggested. Notations absorbed through the skin (Sk ), corrosive (C) and sensitization (A) are considered appropriate.
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Thionyl chloride. Documentation
Katarzyna Konieczko, Sławomir Czerczak
Thionyl chloride is a non-combustible, volatile and fuming in damp air liquid with a pungent, suffocating odour. It reacts with water and water vapour giving off sulfur dioxide and hydrochloride. Thionyl chloride is used mainly as a chlorinating and dehydrating agent and in lithium thionyl chloride batteries.
Critical effect ofthionyl chloride is strong eye and upper respiratory tract irritation. Inhalation exposure may also cause lung edema. Experimental data on animals are very limited.
Taking into consideration the rapid hydrolysis of thionyl chloride in ambient air to sulfur dioxide and hydrochloride the OEL value for thionyl chloride was proposed at the level of 1.8 mg/m³ (as an 8-h time weighted average) and 3.6 mg/m³ (as STEL) based on the Polish OEL values for products of hydrol.
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2-Etoxyethanol. Documentation
Andrzej Sapota, Małgorzata Skrzypińska-Gawrysiak
2-Etoxyethanol (2-EE) is a colorless liquid with the boiling point of 135°C. It is used in numerous industries (chemical, metallurgic, mechanic, electronic and furniture), as well as in commonly used products, such as ink, cosmetics and detergents.
The results of animal studies on acute toxicity have provided evidence that, according to the criteria of categorization, 2-etoxiethanol is a hazardous compound. In occupational exposure, 2-EE is absorbed by the body via the respiratory tract and the skin (in vapor and liquid forms).
Both experimental studies on animals (rats, mice, rabbits and dogs) and epidemiological studies in human populations exposed to 2-EE have shown that this compound has a hematotoxic effect and affects reproduction. In laboratory animals these effects have been observed only after exposure to high concentrations or administration of high doses. It has also been observed that 2-EE hasembriotoxic, fetotoxic and teratogenic effects, however, neither there has been neither mutagenic nor carcinogenic effects.
Epidemiological studies in persons occupationally exposed to this compound have demonstrated its hematotoxic effect and its impact on reproduction in men. The effects have been observed after exposure to ~10 mg/cm³, at the border of statistical significance; at the same time persons under study were additionally exposed to other chemical agents.
The results of epidemiological studies have been a basis for estimating the maximum admissible concentration (MAC) of 2-EE, and the concentration of 10 mg/cm³ is the value of no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL).
After using relevant coefficients of uncertainty the calculated MAC value of 2-EE is for 5 mg/cm³. This value should protect workers against potential hematological and spermatotoxic effects of this compound. There are no grounds for establishing its STEL value. In view of the extensive absorption of 2-EE by the skin, the compound should have the “Sk” symbol and because of its embriotoxic, fetotoxic and teratogenic effects, observed in animals, it is also suggested to use the “Ft” symbol as its additional denotation.
The Interdepartmental Commission for Maximum Admissible Concentrations and Intensities for Agents Harmful to Health in the Working Environment at its 59th meeting has adopted for a 2-year period a MAC value of 2-EE proposed by SCOEL of 8 mg/m³.
On the basis of the toxicokinetic model the value of the maximum admissible limit in biological material (BLV) is 60 mg of 2-ethoxyacetic acid/g creatinine in urine collected at the end of a working week.
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Methyl isocyanate. Documentation
Renata Soćko, Sławomir Czerczak
Methyl isocyanate is a volatile, colorless liquid with a sharp, unpleasant odor. It has been used in industry primarily as a chemical intermediate in the production of a wide variety of insecticides and herbicides and, to a lesser extent, in the production of polyurethane foams and plastics.
Methyl isocyanate has been assessed as very toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed and it is also a severe eye irritant with risk of serious damage to eyes. It is respiratory system and skin irritant too and it is sensitizer for skin and respiratory system. Reproductive toxicity was observed among women to methyl isocyanate. Humans exposed acutely by inhalation to methyl isocyanate may experience long-term (as well as immediate) damage to pulmonary and extrapulmonary systems. The lung is probably the critical target organ for long-term effects from acute exposure, although adverse effects on other organs (e.g., eye, reproductive, and gastrointestinal) also exist. The late responses to the acute exposure suggest an immunological component, which could involve several systems including lung, eye, liver, and kidney.
In setting the MAC value of methyl isocyanate, the results of an acute irritation study (RD50 concentration which produces a 50% reduction in breath rate in mice exposed for 10 min. was 3,05 mg/m³) was considered. According to the above data, the MAC value for methyl isocyanate was established at 0,03 mg/m³ (0,01 RD50) and the value of STEL at 0,047 mg/m³. Additional notations methyl isocyanate are Sk – a substancje chich can be absorber through skin and I – an irritating substancje.
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Copper and its inorganic compounds. Documentation
Andrzej Starek, Marek Jakubowski
Copper is a reddish-brown metal that occurs free or in many ores. Copper metal is more resistant to corrosion than iron. Copper salts are usually colored, being blue or green. The most common salts are sulfate, carbonate, oxides, and sulfide. Copper is one of the most widely used structural metal due to its high electrical and thermal conductivity. Copper inorganic compounds are utilized in fungicides, and pyrotechnics, as pigments, analytical reagents and fertilizer components, as well as, for electroplating and many other industrial applications.
The exposures to copper and its compounds occur in copper and brass foundries and smelters and in welding copper-containing metals. There is exposure to both fumes and dusts of this metal.
Health effects from copper fume and dust exposure consist of irritation of the upper respiratory tract, metallic or sweet taste sensation, nausea, metal fume fever, and in some instances, discoloration of the skin and hair. Concentrations of copper fume of 1-3 mg/m³ of air for short periods resulted in altered taste response but no nausea. However, the concentrations of from 0.02-0.4 mg/m³ did not cause complaints. If copper salts reach the gastrointestinal tract in sufficient concentration, they act as irritants producing salivation, nausea, vomiting, gastric pain, hemorrhagic gastritis, and diarrhea.
It was found that copper compounds exert klastogenic, embriotoxic, fetotoxic, and teratogenic effects. This metal and its compounds did not classified as carcinogens.
The MAC (TWA) value for copper and its inorganic compounds was calculated on the basis of the NOAEL (0.4 mg/m³) value and one uncertainty factor (UF=2). As a critical effect taken into account irritation of the upper respiratory tract in the workers exposed to fume and dust of copper and its compounds. The MAC (TWA) value of 0.2 mg/m³ is recommended. Sufficient data were not available to recommend TLV-STEL or BEI values.
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2-Ethoxyethyl acetate. Documentation
Andrzej Sapota, Małgorzata Skrzypińska-Gawrysiak
2-Etoxyethanol (2-EE) is a colorless liquid with the boiling point of 135°C. It is used in numerous industries (chemical, metallurgic, mechanic, electronic and furniture), as well as in commonly used products, such as ink, cosmetics and detergents.
The results of animal studies on acute toxicity have provided evidence that, according to the criteria of categorization, 2-etoxiethanol is a hazardous compound. In occupational exposure, 2-EE is absorbed by the body via the respiratory tract and the skin (in vapor and liquid forms).
Both experimental studies on animals (rats, mice, rabbits and dogs) and epidemiological studies in human populations exposed to 2-EE have shown that this compound has a hematotoxic effect and affects reproduction. In laboratory animals these effects have been observed only after exposure to high concentrations or administration of high doses. It has also been observed that 2-EE hasembriotoxic, fetotoxic and teratogenic effects, however, neither there has been neither mutagenic nor carcinogenic effects.
Epidemiological studies in persons occupationally exposed to this compound have demonstrated its hematotoxic effect and its impact on reproduction in men. The effects have been observed after exposure to ~10 mg/cm³, at the border of statistical significance; at the same time persons under study were additionally exposed to other chemical agents.
The results of epidemiological studies have been a basis for estimating the maximum admissible concentration (MAC) of 2-EE, and the concentration of 10 mg/cm³ is the value of no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL).
After using relevant coefficients of uncertainty the calculated MAC value of 2-EE is for 5 mg/cm³. This value should protect workers against potential hematological and spermatotoxic effects of this compound. There are no grounds for establishing its STEL value. In view of the extensive absorption of 2-EE by the skin, the compound should have the “Sk” symbol and because of its embriotoxic, fetotoxic and teratogenic effects, observed in animals, it is also suggested to use the “Ft” symbol as its additional denotation.
The Interdepartmental Commission for Maximum Admissible Concentrations and Intensities for Agents Harmful to Health in the Working Environment at its 59th meeting has adopted for a 2-year period a MAC value of 2-EE proposed by SCOEL of 8 mg/m³.
On the basis of the toxicokinetic model the value of the maximum admissible limit in biological material (BLV) is 60 mg of 2-ethoxyacetic acid/g creatinine in urine collected at the end of a working week.
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4-Aminotoluene (p-toluidine). Documentation
Anna Pałaszewska-Tkacz, Sławomir Czerczak
4-Aminotoluene (p-toluidine) has the form of white, lustrous plates or leaflets with a characteristic wine-like odour. It is produced by the reduction of p-nitrotoluene with iron and hydrochloric acid. It is used exclusively as an intermediate in chemical processes including the production of dyes and pigments, pesticides, ion exchange resins and pharmaceutical products. 4-Aminotoluene in present in tobacco smoke (< 2.4 µg/cigarette). As far as occupational exposure to 4-aminotoluene (production and use) is concerned, the route of exposure is significant: inhalation and dermal contact.
Taking into consideration health effects, 4-aminotoluene is classified as toxic by inhalation, in contact with the skin and if swallowed, irritating to eyes, sensitising by skin contact and carcinogenic cat. 3 (limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect). A review of scientific literature showed that exposure to 4-aminotoluene affects blood (methemoglobin inducer) and the liver. Liver weight (relative) increase was accepted as a critical effect in 4-aminotoluene Polish OEL value derivation at the level of 8 mg/m³. It is recommended to label the substance Sk (absorbed through skin), I (irritant) and A (sensitiser). 2% of methemoglobin in blood is proposed as admissible concentration.
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